The Middle Zarafshan Model of the Transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic in Uzbekistan
Abstract
This article presents a scientific analysis of the emergence and gradual development of urban planning culture
in the Samarkand oasis based on archaeological materials. In particular, excavations at major sites such as
Koktepa and Afrasiab demonstrate that the roots of Samarkand’s urban culture date back to the end of the
2nd millennium BCE. The authors argue that the relocation of the city center from Koktepa to Afrasiab
was primarily due to natural-geographical conditions and military-political considerations. The article also
emphasizes that Koktepa corresponds to the agricultural region «Gava–Sughdha» mentioned in the Avesta.
Koktepa is identified as the largest and oldest agricultural settlement of Sogd, which traditionally included the
ruler’s residence and religious structures. The article analyzes the evolution of urban functions, the irrigation
system, fortifications, and the chronology of urbanization processes, all supported by archaeological evidence.
Overall, the article presents scientifically grounded conclusions that the formation of Samarkand as a city has
a history of at least 3000 years.
About the Authors
List of references
Askarov, A. A. 1977. Drevnezemledel’cheskaja kul’tura juga Uzbekistana (The Ancient Farming Culture of Southern
Uzbekistan). Tashkent: Fan Publ., 230. (In Russian).
Askarov, A. A.; Shirinov, T. Sh. 1993. Rannjaja gorodskaja kul’tura epokhi bronzy juga Srednej Azii (Early Urban
Culture of the Bronze Age in Southern Central Asia). Samarkand, 162, 90 ill. (In Russian).
Filanovič, M. I. 1969. K harakteristike drevnejshego poselenija na Afrasiabe (On the Characteristics of the Oldest
Settlement on Afrasiab). In Afrasiab–I. Tashkent, 206–220. (In Russian).
Gorshenina, S., Rapin C. 2015. Samarkand, Marakanda, Zariaspa, la lente formation d’équivalences toponymiques.
In V. Schiltz (ed.), De Samarcande à Istanbul: étapes orientales. Hommages à Pierre Chuvin – II. Paris. 113–116.
Grenet, F., Rakhmanov Sh. 2007. Novye dannye o date pervoj sistemy fortifikatsii Afrasiaba (seredina ili vtoraja polovina
VI v. do n. e.). In Rol’ goroda Samarkand v istorii mirovogo kul’turnogo razvitija. Materialy Mezhdunarodnogo
simpoziuyma, posvjashchennogo 2750-letnemy jubileju Samarkanda (The Role of Samarkand in the History of
World Civilization. Proceedings of the International Symposium, dedicated to the 2750th anniversary of the city
of Samarkand). Tashkent–Samarkand, 21–23. (In Russian).
Isamiddinov, M. H. 2002. Istoki gorodskoj kul’tury Samarkandskogo Sogda (Origins of the Urban Culture of
Samarkand Sogd). Tashkent, 255. (In Russian).
Isamiddinov, M.; Vafaev, G. 1988. Otchet Samarkandskogo otriada po sostavleniju svoda arkheologicheskikh
pamjatnikov Samarkandskoj oblasti (Pajarykskij rajon) (Report of the Samarkand Team on Compiling the
Register of Archaeological Sites of the Samarkand Region). Archives of the Samarkand Institute of Archaeology.
F.4, Op.1, D.178. Samarkand, 52. (In Russian).
Khasanov, M. 2021. Kul’tura Sogda v epokhu rannezheleznogo veka i antichnosti (Culture of Sogd in the Early Iron
Age and Antiquity). Abstract of doctoral dissertation in historical sciences. Samarkand. (In Russian).
Lhuillier, J. 2013. Les cultures à céramique modelée peinte en Asie centrale méridionale. Dynamiques socio-culturelles
à l’âge du Fer ancien (1500-1000 av. n.è.). Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique Française en Asie Centrale
XIII, Paris.
Lhuillier, J. 2018. Central Asia during the Achaemenid Period in Archaeological Perspective. In S. Gondet, E.
Haerinck (eds.), L’Orient est son jardin. Hommage à Rémy Boucharlat. Acta Iranica, 58. 257–271.
Lhuillier, J., Isamiddinov, M., Rapin, C. 2012. Rannezheleznyj vek severnovo Sogda: kharakteristika i predvaritel’naja
tipologicheskaja khronologija. In Istorija Material’noj Kul’tury Uzbekistana (IMKU), 37. Samarkand, 57–66. (In
Russian).
Lyonnet, B. 2023. Questions on the Origin of the Iron Age Circular Fortresses in Central Asia and of Monumental
Architecture in Sogdiana, in L. Colliva, A. Filigenzi, L. M. Olivieri (eds), Le forme della città. Iran, Gandhāra
e Asia centrale. Scritti offerti a Pierfrancesco Callieri in occasione del suo 65° compleanno. Rome. 417–433.
Masson, V. M. 1959. Drevnezemledel’cheskaja kul’tura Margiany (The Ancient Farming Culture of Margiana). In
MIA (Materials and Research on Archeology of the USSR). Vol. 73. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 250. (In Russian).
Masson, V. M. 1964. Srednjaja Azija i Drevnij Vostok (Central Asia and the Ancient East). Moscow–Leningrad, 87.
(In Russian).
Rapin, C. 2007. Koktepe v period zhelezhnogo veka do prikhoda Akhemenidov (Koktepe during the Iron Age before the
Achaemenids). In Rol’ goroda Samarkand v istorii mirovogo kul’turnogo razvitija. Materialy Mezhdunarodnogo
simpoziuyma, posvjashchennogo 2750-letnemy jubileju Samarkanda (The Role of Samarkand in the History of
How to Cite
Copyright (c) 2026 Archaeology of Uzbekistan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.